The North American X-15 was a hypersonic rocket-powered aircraft operated by the United States Air Force and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration as part of the X-plane series of experimental aircraft. The X-15 set speed and altitude records in the 1960s, reaching the edge of outer space and returning with valuable data used in aircraft and spacecraft design. As of September 2015[update], the X-15 holds the official world record for the highest speed ever recorded by a manned, powered aircraft. It could reach a top speed of 4,520 miles per hour (Template:Convert/pround km/h), or Mach 6.72.[1][2]
During the X-15 program, 13 flights by eight pilots met the Air Force spaceflight criterion by exceeding the altitude of 50 miles (Template:Convert/round km), thus qualifying these pilots as being astronauts. The Air Force pilots qualified for astronaut wings immediately, while the civilian pilots were eventually awarded NASA astronaut wings in 2005, 35 years after the last X-15 flight. The only Navy pilot in the X-15 program never took the aircraft above the requisite 50 mile altitude and so as a result, never earned himself astronaut wings.Template:Sfn[3]
Of the 199 X-15 missions, two flights (both by Joseph A. Walker) qualified as true space flights per the international (Fédération Aéronautique Internationale) definition of a spaceflight by exceeding 100 kilometers (Template:Convert/pround mi) in altitude.
Design and development[]
X-15 after igniting rocket engine
X-15A2, with sealed ablative coating, external fuel tanks, and ramjet dummy test
The X-15 was based on a concept study from Walter Dornberger for the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) for a hypersonic research aircraft.Template:Sfn The requests for proposal were published on 30 December 1954 for the airframe and on 4 February 1955 for the rocket engine. The X-15 was built by two manufacturers: North American Aviation was contracted for the airframe in November 1955, and Reaction Motors was contracted for building the engines in 1956.
Like many X-series aircraft, the X-15 was designed to be carried aloft and drop launched from under the wing of a NASA B-52 mother ship. Air Force NB-52A, "The High and Mighty One" (serial 52-0003, AKA Balls Three), and NB-52B, "The Challenger" (serial 52-0008, AKA Balls 8) served as carrier planes for all X-15 flights. Release took place at an altitude of about 8.5 miles (Template:Convert/round km) and a speed of about Template:Convert/round miles per hour (805 km/h).[4] The X-15 fuselage was long and cylindrical, with rear fairings that flattened its appearance, and thick, dorsal and ventral wedge-fin stabilizers. Parts of the fuselage were heat-resistant nickel alloy (Inconel-X 750).Template:Sfn The retractable landing gear comprised a nose-wheel carriage and two rear skids. The skids did not extend beyond the ventral fin, which required the pilot to jettison the lower fin (fitted with a parachute) just before landing.
Cockpit and pilot systems[]
Cockpit of an X-15
The X-15 was a research program and changes were made to various systems over the course of the program and between the different models. The X-15 was operated under several different scenarios including attachment to a launch aircraft, drop, main engine start and acceleration, a ballistic flight into thin air/space, re-entry into thicker air, and an unpowered glide to landing. Alternatively, if the main engine was not started the pilot went directly to a landing. The main rocket engine operated only for a relatively short part of the flight, but was capable of boosting the X-15 to its high speeds and altitudes. Without main engine thrust, the X-15's instruments and control surfaces remained functional, but the aircraft could not maintain altitude.
Because the X-15 also had to be controlled in an environment where there was too little air for aerodynamic flight control surfaces, it had a reaction control system (RCS) that used rocket thrusters.[5] There were two different X-15 pilot control setups: one used three joysticks; the other, one joystick.[6]
The X-15 type with multiple control sticks for the pilot included a traditional rudder and stick, and another joystick on the left which sent commands to the reaction control system.[7] A third joystick on the right side was used during high-G maneuvers to augment the center stick.[7] In addition to pilot input, the X-15 "Stability Augmentation System" (SAS) sent inputs to the aerodynamic controls to help the pilot maintain attitude control.[7] The reaction control system could be operated in two modes, manual and automatic.[6] The automatic mode used a feature called "Reaction Augmentation System" (RAS) that helped stabilize the vehicle at high altitude.[6] The RAS was typically used for approximately three minutes of an X-15 flight before automatic power off.[6]
The second setup used the MH-96 flight control system which allowed one joystick in place of three and simplified pilot input.[8] The MH-96 could automatically blend aerodynamic and rocket controls depending on how effective each system was at controlling the aircraft.[8]
Among the many controls were the rocket engine throttle and a control for jettisoning the ventral tail fin.[7] Other features of the cockpit were heated windows to prevent icing, and a forward headrest for periods of high deceleration.[7]
The X-15 had an ejection seat that allowed ejection at speeds up to Mach 4 and/or 120,000 feet (Template:Convert/round km) altitude, although it was not used during the program.[7] In the event of ejection, the seat had deployable fins which were used until it reached a safer speed/altitude, where it could deploy its main parachute.[7] Pilots wore a pressure suit, which could be pressurized with nitrogen gas.[7] Above 35,000 feet (Template:Convert/round km) altitude, the cockpit was pressurized to 3.5 psi (Template:Convert/round atm) with nitrogen gas, and oxygen for breathing was fed separately to the pilot.[7]
Propulsion[]
X-15 tail with XLR-99
Early flights used two Reaction Motors XLR11 liquid-propellant rocket engines. Later flights were undertaken with a single XLR99 rocket engine generating 57,000 pounds-force (Template:Convert/round kN) of thrust. The XLR11 used ethyl alcohol and liquid oxygen. The XLR99 engine used anhydrous ammonia and liquid oxygen as propellant, and hydrogen peroxide to drive the high-speed turbopump that delivered propellants to the engine.[5] It could burn 15,000 pounds (Template:Convert/pround kg) of propellant in 80 seconds.[5] The XLR99s could be throttled, and were the first such controllable engines that were man-rated.
The X-15 reaction control system (RCS), for maneuvering in low-pressure/density environment, used high-test peroxide (HTP), which decomposes into water and oxygen in the presence of a catalyst and could provide a specific impulse of 140 seconds.[6]Template:Sfn The HTP also fueled a turbopump for the main engines and auxiliary power units (APUs).[5] Additional tanks for helium and liquid nitrogen performed other functions, for example the fuselage interior was purged with helium gas, and the liquid nitrogen was used as coolant for various systems.[5]
Wedge tail and hypersonic stability[]
X-15 attached to its B-52 mother ship with a T-38 flying nearby
The X-15 had a thick wedge tail to enable it to fly in a steady manner at hypersonic speeds.[9] This produced a significant amount of drag at lower speeds;[9] the blunt end at the rear of the X-15 could produce as much drag as an entire F-104 Starfighter.[9] Template:Quotation Stability at hypersonic speeds was aided by side panels which could be extended out from the tail to increase the overall surface area, and these panels doubled as air-brakes.[9]
Operational history[]
Neil Armstrong with X-15 number 1
Members of the X-15 flight crew, left to right: Engle, Rushworth, McKay, Knight, Thompson, and Dana.
Altitudes attained by X-15 aircraft do not match those of Alan Shepard's and Gus Grissom's Project Mercury space capsules in 1961, nor of any other manned spacecraft. However, the X-15 ranks supreme among manned rocket-powered aircraft, becoming the world's first operational spaceplane in the early 1960s.
Before 1958, United States Air Force (USAF) and NACA officials discussed an orbital X-15 spaceplane, the X-15B that would launch into outer space from atop an SM-64 Navaho missile. This was canceled when the NACA became NASA and adopted Project Mercury instead.
By 1959, the Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar space-glider program was to become the USAF's preferred means for launching military manned spacecraft into orbit. This program was canceled in the early 1960s before an operational vehicle could be built.Template:Sfn Various configurations of the Navajo were considered, and another proposal involved a Titan I stage.[10]
Three X-15s were built, flying 199 test flights, the last on 24 October 1968.
The first X-15 flight was a captive-carry unpowered test by Scott Crossfield, on 8 June 1959. Crossfield also piloted the first powered flight, on 17 September 1959, and his first flight with the XLR-99 rocket engine on 15 November 1960. Twelve test pilots flew the X-15. Among these were Neil Armstrong, later a NASA astronaut and first man to set foot on the Moon, and Joe Engle, later a commander of NASA Space Shuttle test flights.
In a 1962 proposal, NASA considered using the B-52/X-15 as a launch platform for a Blue Scout rocket to place satellites weighing up to 150 pounds (Template:Convert/round kg) into orbit.[10][11]
In July and August 1963, pilot Joseph A. Walker exceeded 100 km in altitude, joining NASA astronauts and Soviet cosmonauts as the first human beings to cross that line on their way to outer space. The USAF awarded astronaut wings to anyone achieving an altitude of 50 miles (Template:Convert/round km), while the FAI set the limit of space at 100 kilometers (Template:Convert/pround mi).
On 15 November 1967, U.S. Air Force test pilot Major Michael J. Adams was killed during X-15 Flight 191 when the X-15-3, AF Ser. No. 56-6672, entered a hypersonic spin while descending, then oscillated violently as aerodynamic forces increased after re-entry. As his aircraft's flight control system operated the control surfaces to their limits, acceleration built to 15 g vertical and 8.0 g lateral. The airframe broke apart at 60,000 feet (Template:Convert/round km) altitude, scattering the X-15's wreckage for 50 square miles (Template:Convert/round km2). On 8 May 2004, a monument was erected at the cockpit's locale, near Randsburg, California.[12] Major Adams was posthumously awarded Air Force astronaut wings for his final flight in X-15-3, which had reached an altitude of Template:Convert/round miles (81.1 km). In 1991, his name was added to the Astronaut Memorial.[12]
The second X-15A was rebuilt after a landing accident. It was lengthened by 2.4 feet (Template:Convert/round m), had a pair of auxiliary fuel tanks attached beneath its fuselage and wings, and a complete heat-resistant ablative coating was added. The plane was renamed the X-15A-2, and took flight for the first time on 28 June 1964. It reached its maximum speed of Template:Convert/round miles per hour (7,274 km/h) in October 1967 with pilot William "Pete" Knight of the U.S. Air Force in control.
Five aircraft were used during the span of the X-15 program: three X-15s planes and two B-52 bombers:
- X-15A – 56-6670, 82 powered flights
- X-15A (later X-15A-2) – 56-6671, 31 powered flights as X-15A, 22 powered flights as X-15A-2, and 53 in total
- X-15A – 56-6672, 64 powered flights
- NB-52A – 52-003 (retired in October 1969)
- NB-52B – 52-008 (retired in November 2004)
A 200th flight over Nevada was first scheduled for 21 November 1968, to be flown by William "Pete" Knight. Numerous technical problems and outbreaks of bad weather delayed this proposed flight six times, and it was permanently canceled on 20 December 1968. This X-15 was detached from the B-52 and then put into indefinite storage. The aircraft was later donated to the Air Force Museum at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base for display.
Current static displays[]
X-15 at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C.
- X-15A-1 (AF Ser. No. 56-6670) is on display in the National Air and Space Museum "Milestones of Flight" gallery, Washington, D.C.
- X-15A-2 (AF Ser. No. 56-6671) is at the National Museum of the United States Air Force, at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, near Dayton, Ohio. It was retired to the museum in October 1969.Template:Sfn The aircraft is displayed in the museum's Research and Development Gallery alongside other "X-planes", including the Bell X-1B and Douglas X-3 Stiletto.
Mockups[]
- Dryden Flight Research Center, Edwards AFB, California, USA (painted with AF Ser. No. 56-6672)
- Pima Air & Space Museum, adjacent to Davis-Monthan AFB, Tucson, Arizona (painted with AF Ser. No. 56-6671)
- Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum, McMinnville, Oregon (painted with AF Ser. No. 56-6672). A full-scale wooden mockup of the X-15, it is displayed along with one of the rocket engines.
Stratofortress mother ships[]
NB-52B takes off with an X-15
- NB-52A (AF Ser. No. 52-0003) is displayed at the Pima Air & Space Museum adjacent to Davis–Monthan AFB in Tucson, Arizona. It launched the X-15-1 30 times, the X-15-2, 11 times, and the X-15-3 31 times (as well as the M2-F2 four times, the HL-10 11 times and the X-24A twice).
- NB-52B (AF Ser. No. 52-0008) is on permanent display outside the north gate of Edwards AFB, California. It launched the majority of X-15 flights.
Record flights[]
Highest flights[]
The FAI set the limit of space at 100 kilometers (Template:Convert/pround mi). But in the 1960s, the U.S. Air Force considered an altitude of 50 miles (Template:Convert/round km) as the limit of space; U.S. Air Force and NASA pilots and crew exceeding that altitude at the time could be awarded the astronaut badge. Thirteen X-15 flights went higher than 50 miles, two of which exceeded 100 kilometers.
| Flight | Date | Top speed | Altitude | Pilot |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Flight 62 | 17 July 1962 | 3,831 mph (Template:Convert/round km/h) | 59.6 mi (Template:Convert/round km) | Robert M. White |
| Flight 77 | 17 January 1963 | 3,677 mph (Template:Convert/round km/h) | 51.4 mi (Template:Convert/round km) | Joseph A. Walker |
| Flight 87 | 27 June 1963 | 3,425 mph (Template:Convert/round km/h) | 53.9 mi (Template:Convert/round km) | Robert A. Rushworth |
| Flight 90 | 19 July 1963 | 3,710 mph (Template:Convert/round km/h) | 65.8 mi (Template:Convert/round km) | Joseph A. Walker |
| Flight 91 | 22 August 1963 | 3,794 mph (Template:Convert/round km/h) | 67.0 mi (Template:Convert/round km) | Joseph A. Walker |
| Flight 138 | 29 June 1965 | 3,431 mph (Template:Convert/round km/h) | 53.1 mi (Template:Convert/round km) | Joseph H. Engle |
| Flight 143 | 10 August 1965 | 3,549 mph (Template:Convert/round km/h) | 51.3 mi (Template:Convert/round km) | Joseph H. Engle |
| Flight 150 | 28 September 1965 | 3,731 mph (Template:Convert/round km/h) | 55.9 mi (Template:Convert/round km) | John B. McKay |
| Flight 153 | 14 October 1965 | 3,554 mph (Template:Convert/round km/h) | 50.4 mi (Template:Convert/round km) | Joseph H. Engle |
| Flight 174 | 1 November 1966 | 3,750 mph (Template:Convert/round km/h) | 58.1 mi (Template:Convert/round km) | William H. "Bill" Dana |
| Flight 190 | 17 October 1967 | 3,856 mph (Template:Convert/round km/h) | 53.1 mi (Template:Convert/round km) | William J. "Pete" Knight |
| Flight 191 | 15 November 1967 | 3,569 mph (Template:Convert/round km/h) | 50.3 mi (Template:Convert/round km) | Michael J. Adams† |
| Flight 197 | 21 August 1968 | 3,443 mph (Template:Convert/round km/h) | 50.6 mi (Template:Convert/round km) | William H. Dana |
† fatal
Fastest recorded flights[]
Key speed and altitude benchmarks of the X-15.
| Flight | Date | Top Speed | Altitude | Pilot |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Flight 45 | 9 November 1961 | 4,092 mph (Template:Convert/round km/h) | 19.2 mi (Template:Convert/round km) | Robert M. White |
| Flight 59 | 27 June 1962 | 4,104 mph (Template:Convert/round km/h) | 23.4 mi (Template:Convert/round km) | Joseph A. Walker |
| Flight 64 | 26 July 1962 | 3,989 mph (Template:Convert/round km/h) | 18.7 mi (Template:Convert/round km) | Neil A. Armstrong |
| Flight 86 | 25 June 1963 | 3,910 mph (Template:Convert/round km/h) | 21.7 mi (Template:Convert/round km) | Joseph A. Walker |
| Flight 89 | 18 July 1963 | 3,925 mph (Template:Convert/round km/h) | 19.8 mi (Template:Convert/round km) | Robert A. Rushworth |
| Flight 97 | 5 December 1963 | 4,017 mph (Template:Convert/round km/h) | 19.1 mi (Template:Convert/round km) | Robert A. Rushworth |
| Flight 105 | 29 April 1964 | 3,905 mph (Template:Convert/round km/h) | 19.2 mi (Template:Convert/round km) | Robert A. Rushworth |
| Flight 137 | 22 June 1965 | 3,938 mph (Template:Convert/round km/h) | 29.5 mi (Template:Convert/round km) | John B. McKay |
| Flight 175 | 18 November 1966 | 4,250 mph (Template:Convert/round km/h) | 18.7 mi (Template:Convert/round km) | William J. "Pete" Knight |
| Flight 188 | 3 October 1967 | 4,519 mph (Template:Convert/round km/h) | 19.3 mi (Template:Convert/round km) | William J. "Pete" Knight |
X-15 pilots[]
| X-15 pilots and their achievements during the program | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pilot | Organization | Total Flights |
USAF space flights |
FAI space flights |
Max Mach |
Max speed (mph) |
Max altitude (miles) |
| Michael J. Adams† | U.S. Air Force | 7 | 1 | 0 | 5.59 | 3,822 | 50.3 |
| Neil Armstrong | NASA | 7 | 0 | 0 | 5.74 | 3,989 | 39.2 |
| Scott Crossfield | North American Aviation | 14 | 0 | 0 | 2.97 | 1,959 | 15.3 |
| William H. "Bill" Dana | NASA | 16 | 2 | 0 | 5.53 | 3,897 | 58.1 |
| Joseph H. Engle | U.S. Air Force | 16 | 3 | 0 | 5.71 | 3,887 | 53.1 |
| William J. "Pete" Knight | U.S. Air Force | 16 | 1 | 0 | 6.70 | 4,519 | 53.1 |
| John B. McKay | NASA | 29 | 1 | 0 | 5.65 | 3,863 | 55.9 |
| Forrest S. Petersen | U.S. Navy | 5 | 0 | 0 | 5.3 | 3,600 | 19.2 |
| Robert A. Rushworth | U.S. Air Force | 34 | 1 | 0 | 6.06 | 4,017 | 53.9 |
| Milton O. Thompson | NASA | 14 | 0 | 0 | 5.48 | 3,723 | 40.5 |
| Joseph A. Walker | NASA | 25 | 3 | 2 | 5.92 | 4,104 | 67.0 |
| Robert M. White** | U.S. Air Force | 16 | 1 | 0 | 6.04 | 4,092 | 59.6 |
| † Killed in the crash of an X - 15 ** White was the back-up pilot for Captain Iven Kincheloe, who was killed in a F-104A. | |||||||
Specifications (X-15)[]
Other configurations include the Reaction Motors XLR11 equipped X-15, and the long version.
Template:Aircraft specifications
See also[]
Template:Aircontent
References[]
- Notes
- ↑ "North American X-15 High-Speed Research Aircraft". Aerospaceweb.org. 2010. http://www.aerospaceweb.org/aircraft/research/x15/. Retrieved 24 November 2008.
- ↑ Gibbs, Yvonne, ed (28 February 2014). "NASA Armstrong Fact Sheet: X-15 Hypersonic Research Program". NASA. http://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/FactSheets/FS-052-DFRC.html. Retrieved 4 October 2015.
- ↑ Template:Cite press release
- ↑ "X-15 launch from B-52 mothership". Armstrong Flight Research Center. 6 February 2002. Photo E-4942. http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/Gallery/Photo/X-15/HTML/E-4942.html.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Raveling, Paul. "X-15 Pilot Report, Part 1: X-15 General Description & Walkaround". SierraFoot.org. http://www.sierrafoot.org/x-15/pirep1.html. Retrieved 30 September 2011.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Template:Cite book
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 Raveling, Paul. "X-15 Pilot Report, Part 2: X-15 Cockpit Check". SierraFoot.org. http://www.sierrafoot.org/x-15/pirep2.html. Retrieved 1 October 2011.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 "Forty Years ago in the X-15 Flight Test Program, November 1961–March 1962". Goleta Air & Space Museum. http://www.air-and-space.com/x-15%20forty%20years%20later%20200202.htm. Retrieved 3 October 2011.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Template:Cite book
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Wade, Mark. "X-15/Blue Scout". Encyclopedia Astronautica. http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/x15scout.htm. Retrieved 30 September 2011.
- ↑ "Historical note: Blue Scout / X-15". Citizensinspace.org. 21 March 2012. http://www.citizensinspace.org/2012/03/historical-note-blue-scout-x-15/.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Template:Cite journal
- Bibliography
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External links[]
| File:Commons-Logo.svg | Wikimedia Commons has media related to Category:North American X-15. |
- NASA
- NASA's X-15 website
- "Transiting from Air to Space: The North American X-15" (1998)
- "Proceedings of the X-15 First Flight 30th Anniversary Celebration, 8 June 1989"
- Hypersonics Before the Shuttle: A Concise History of the X-15 Research Airplane (NASA SP-2000-4518, 2000)
- Interview with Neil Armstrong about his experience in the X-15
- NASA Armstrong Fact Sheet: X-15 Hypersonic Research Program
- X-15 photos at NASA Armstrong
- X-15 movies at NASA Armstrong
- Interactive X-15 portal by NASA (uses Macromedia Flash)
- Non-NASA
- X-15 Advanced Research Airplane Design Summary (NA-55-221, 1955)
- "Recovery of the X-15 Supersonic Experimental Aircraft" at History in Pieces
- Template:Internet Archive film clip
- Template:Internet Archive film clip
- Template:Internet Archive film clip
- Template:Internet Archive film clip
- Template:Internet Archive short film
- X-15 at Encyclopedia Astronautica
- Template:IMDb title
Template:North American Aviation aircraft Template:X-planes
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